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As stated in 1, the managed type system is unified. Every managed type directly or indirectly inherits explicitly or implicitly from a single type called Object. This includes all reference types and the boxed form of all value types, and even the built-in primitive types, considering the aliases for those types such as Int32, Char, Double, etc. In 2, you saw how the array type is an object type, complete with properties, such as Length, and methods. These methods are part of the System::Array class. In fact, there are also methods defined on the Object class that every managed type has. Listing 4-1 is what the declaration of the Object type would look like, showing the available public methods (there are some protected methods as well, not shown here). Listing 4-1. The Object Type ref class Object { public: virtual Type^ GetType(); virtual String^ ToString(); virtual bool Equals(Object^); static bool Equals(Object^, Object^); static bool ReferenceEquals(Object^); virtual int GetHashCode(); }; The unified type system enables us to create functions that can operate on objects of any type, simply by taking a handle to Object as a parameter. The function can then figure out the type of the object and do something appropriate for that object. Or, in the case of a collection class, a single collection type with object handles as its elements could be used for objects of any type, although you ll see in 11 that a generic collection would be better. A very simple example of a function that might be useful is one that displays the type of an object

You need to perform a number of basic steps to create a rule. These include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Define the rule logic. Define the input schema and XML instance. Define the output schema and XML instance. Define the facts that the rule uses, such as constants, functions, and predicates (vocabularies).

The first step to creating a rule is determining the logic of the rule. This example will use the logic in Listing 7 1 to construct the rule.

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along with a string representation of the object. Something like the function in Listing 4-2 might serve as a useful debugging tool. Listing 4-2. Displaying an Object As a String // debug_print.cpp using namespace System; void DebugPrint(Object^ obj) { // For debugging purposes, display the type of the object // and its string conversion. System::Type^ type = obj->GetType(); Console::WriteLine("Type: {0} Value: {1}", type->ToString(), obj->ToString() ); } This function could be called with any managed type, but also any of the primitive types. It may seem strange that you could call these methods on a primitive type, like int, so it is worthwhile to delve into how this is possible.

Listing 7 1. Rule Logic If Age < Minimum Age Then Deny Application If Age > or = Minimum Age Then Accept Application We will show how to execute the rule in Listing 7 1 against an XML document containing the data that will be validated. For this example, we will use the NewHire schema (Figure 7 3) with the schema and XML instance (Listing 7 2).

Figure 7 3. NewHire schema Listing 7 2. NewHire XML Instance <ns0:NewHireList xmlns:ns0="http://CreatingAndTestingRules.NewHire"> <DateTime>2010-08-04T18:00:00</DateTime> <Person> <ID>1</ID> <Name>Mary</Name> <Role>Office Manager</Role> <Age>31</Age> </Person> <Person> <ID>2</ID> <Name>Windy</Name> <Role>Organist</Role> <Age>38</Age> </Person> </ns0:NewHireList>

In classic C++, the primitive types don t inherit from anything. They re not classes, they re just types. They re not objects and can t be treated as such for example, you can t call methods on them. And they certainly don t have all the members of the base class Object. In the managed world, the primitive types may be wrapped in an object when there is a need to represent them as objects. This wrapping is referred to as boxing. Boxing is used whenever a value type (which could be a primitive type) is converted into an object type, either by being cast to an object handle, or by being passed to a function taking a handle to an Object as a parameter type, or by being assigned to a variable of type handle to Object. When a variable of a type that does not explicitly inherit from Object, such as an integer, is implicitly converted to an Object in any of the preceding situations, an object is created on the fly for that variable. The operation is slower than operations involving the naked value type, so it is good to know when it is taking place. Because boxing takes place implicitly, it is possible to treat all primitive types, in fact all managed types, as if they inherit from Object whenever the need arises. Consider the calls to DebugPrint in Listing 4-3. Listing 4-3. Boxing an Integer Type int i = 56; DebugPrint(i); String^ s = "Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana."; DebugPrint(s);

Note The schema must define the <Age> element as an integer for the comparison to work in the business rule,

which you will create in this solution. The rules engine will not implicitly convert a String to an Int.

Unboxing occurs when an object type is cast back to a primitive type, as shown in Listing 4-4. Listing 4-4. Unboxing an Object to an Integer // unboxing.cpp using namespace System; Object^ f(Object^ obj) { Console::WriteLine("In f, with " + obj->ToString() + "."); return obj; } int main() { int i = 1; int j = safe_cast<int>( f(i) ); // Cast back to int to unbox the object. } The output of Listing 4-4 is as follows:

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